Reference #16

Kidney Int. 2020 Mar;97(3):487-501.
doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2019.09.034. Epub 2019 Nov 2.

Magnesium prevents vascular calcification in Klotho deficiency

Anique D Ter Braake 1, Anna E Smit 1, Caro Bos 1, Antonius E van Herwaarden 2, Wynand Alkema 3, Huib W van Essen 4, Nathalie Bravenboer 4, Marc G Vervloet 5, Joost G J Hoenderop 1, Jeroen H F de Baaij 6
Affiliations expand

• PMID: 31866113
• DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2019.09.034

Abstract

Klotho knock-out mice are an important model for vascular calcification, which is associated with chronic kidney disease. In chronic kidney disease, serum magnesium inversely correlates with vascular calcification. Here we determine the effects of serum magnesium on aortic calcification in Klotho knock-out mice treated with a minimal or a high magnesium diet from birth. After eight weeks, serum biochemistry and aorta and bone tissues were studied. Protective effects of magnesium were characterized by RNA-sequencing of the aorta and micro-CT analysis was performed to study bone integrity. A high magnesium diet prevented vascular calcification and aortic gene expression of Runx2 and matrix Gla protein found in such mice on the minimal magnesium diet. Differential expression of inflammation and extracellular matrix remodeling genes accompanied the beneficial effects of magnesium on calcification. High dietary magnesium did not affect serum parathyroid hormone, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 or calcium. High magnesium intake prevented vascular calcification despite increased fibroblast growth factor-23 and phosphate concentration in the knock-out mice. Compared to mice on the minimal magnesium diet, the high magnesium diet reduced femoral bone mineral density by 20% and caused excessive osteoid formation indicating osteomalacia. Osteoclast activity was unaffected by the high magnesium diet. In Saos-2 osteoblasts, magnesium supplementation reduced mineralization independent of osteoblast function. Thus, high dietary magnesium prevents calcification in Klotho knock-out mice. These effects are potentially mediated by reduction of inflammatory and extracellular matrix remodeling pathways within the aorta. Hence magnesium treatment may be promising to prevent vascular calcification, but the risk for osteomalacia should be considered.

Reference #17

Randomized Controlled Trial

J Am Soc Nephrol 2019 Jun;30(6):1073-1085.
doi: 10.1681/ASN.2018111150. Epub 2019 Apr 29.

A Randomized Trial of Magnesium Oxide and Oral Carbon Adsorbent for Coronary Artery Calcification in Predialysis CKD

Yusuke Sakaguchi 1, Takayuki Hamano 2, Yoshitsugu Obi 3, Chikako Monden 4, Tatsufumi Oka 5, Satoshi Yamaguchi 5, Isao Matsui 5, Nobuhiro Hashimoto 5, Ayumi Matsumoto 5, Karin Shimada 5, Yoshitsugu Takabatake 5, Atsushi Takahashi 5, Jun-Ya Kaimori 6, Toshiki Moriyama 7, Ryohei Yamamoto 7, Masaru Horio 8, Koichi Yamamoto 9, Ken Sugimoto 9, Hiromi Rakugi 9, Yoshitaka Isaka 5

• PMID: 31036759
• PMCID: PMC6551769
• DOI: 10.1681/ASN.2018111150

Abstract

Background: Developing strategies for managing coronary artery calcification (CAC) in patients with CKD is an important clinical challenge. Experimental studies have demonstrated that magnesium inhibits vascular calcification, whereas the uremic toxin indoxyl sulfate aggravates it.

Methods: To assess the efficacy of magnesium oxide (MgO) and/or the oral carbon adsorbent AST-120 for slowing CAC progression in CKD, we conducted a 2-year, open-label, randomized, controlled trial, enrolling patients with stage 3-4 CKD with risk factors for CAC (diabetes mellitus, history of cardiovascular disease, high LDL cholesterol, or smoking). Using a two-by-two factorial design, we randomly assigned patients to an MgO group or a control group, and to an AST-120 group or a control group. The primary outcome was percentage change in CAC score.

Results: We terminated the study prematurely after an interim analysis with the first 125 enrolled patients (of whom 96 completed the study) showed that the median change in CAC score was significantly smaller for MgO versus control (11.3% versus 39.5%). The proportion of patients with an annualized percentage change in CAC score of ≥15% was also significantly lower for MgO compared with control (23.9% versus 62.0%). However, MgO did not suppress the progression of thoracic aorta calcification. The MgO group's dropout rate was higher than that of the control group (27% versus 17%), primarily due to diarrhea. The percentage change in CAC score did not differ significantly between the AST-120 and control groups.

Conclusions: MgO, but not AST-120, appears to be effective in slowing CAC progression. Larger-scale trials are warranted to confirm these findings.

Reference #18

Kidney Int Rep

2016 Dec 30;2(3):380-389.
doi: 10.1016/j.ekir.2016.12.008. eCollection 2017 May.

Oral Magnesium Supplementation in Chronic Kidney Disease Stages 3 and 4: Efficacy, Safety, and Effect on Serum Calcification Propensity-A Prospective Randomized Double-Blinded Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial

Iain Bressendorff 1, Ditte Hansen 2 3, Morten Schou 4, Burton Silver 5, Andreas Pasch 6, Pierre Bouchelouche 7, Lise Pedersen 8, Lars Melholt Rasmussen 9, Lisbet Brandi 1
Affiliations expand

• PMID: 29142966
• PMCID: PMC5678662
• DOI: 10.1016/j.ekir.2016.12.008

Abstract

Introduction: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is associated with high cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Recent evidence suggests that increases in both serum and intracellular magnesium (Mg) can slow or even prevent the development of vascular calcification seen in CKD. Serum calcification propensity (T50) is a novel functional test, which is associated with all-cause mortality in CKD and measures the ability of serum to delay the formation of crystalline nanoparticles. Theoretically, increasing serum Mg should improve T50 and thereby reduce the propensity towards ectopic calcification.

Methods: We conducted a randomized placebo-controlled double-blinded clinical trial to investigate the safety of 2 different doses of oral Mg supplementation in subjects with CKD stages 3 and 4 as well as their effects on intracellular Mg and T50. Thirty-six subjects with CKD stages 3 and 4 were randomized to one of 3 groups (placebo, elemental Mg 15 mmol/d or elemental Mg 30 mmol/d) given as slow-release Mg hydroxide and followed for 8 weeks.

Results: Thirty-four subjects completed the trial. Intracellular Mg remained stable throughout the trial despite significant increases in both serum and urine Mg. T50 increased significantly by 40 min from 256 ± 60 (mean ± SD) to 296 ± 64 minutes (95% confidence interval, 11-70, P < 0.05) in the Mg 30 mmol/d group after 8 weeks. No serious adverse events related to the study medication were reported during the study.

Discussion: Oral Mg supplementation was safe and well tolerated in CKD stages 3 and 4 and improved T50, but did not increase intracellular Mg. Further studies are needed to investigate the long-term effects of Mg supplementation in CKD stage 3 and 4 and whether improvement in calcification propensity is related to clinical endpoints.

Keywords: calcification propensity; chronic kidney disease; magnesium.

Reference #19

J Am Heart Assoc. 2016 Jan 22;5(1):e002707.
doi: 10.1161/JAHA.115.002707.

Serum Magnesium and the Risk of Death From Coronary Heart Disease and Sudden Cardiac Death

Brenda C T Kieboom 1, Maartje N Niemeijer 2, Maarten J G Leening 3, Marten E van den Berg 4, Oscar H Franco 2, Jaap W Deckers 5, Albert Hofman 6, Robert Zietse 7, Bruno H Stricker 1, Ewout J Hoorn 7

• PMID: 26802105
• PMCID: PMC4859391
• DOI: 10.1161/JAHA.115.002707

Abstract

Background: Low serum magnesium has been implicated in cardiovascular mortality, but results are conflicting and the pathway is unclear. We studied the association of serum magnesium with coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality and sudden cardiac death (SCD) within the prospective population-based Rotterdam Study, with adjudicated end points and long-term follow-up.

Methods and results: Nine-thousand eight-hundred and twenty participants (mean age 65.1 years, 56.8% female) were included with a median follow-up of 8.7 years. We used multivariable Cox proportional hazard models and found that a 0.1 mmol/L increase in serum magnesium level was associated with a lower risk for CHD mortality (hazard ratio: 0.82, 95% CI 0.70-0.96). Furthermore, we divided serum magnesium in quartiles, with the second and third quartile combined as reference group (0.81-0.88 mmol/L). Low serum magnesium (≤0.80 mmol/L) was associated with an increased risk of CHD mortality (N=431, hazard ratio: 1.36, 95% CI 1.09-1.69) and SCD (N=217, hazard ratio: 1.54, 95% CI 1.12-2.11). Low serum magnesium was associated with accelerated subclinical atherosclerosis (expressed as increased carotid intima-media thickness: +0.013 mm, 95% CI 0.005-0.020) and increased QT-interval, mainly through an effect on heart rate (RR-interval: -7.1 ms, 95% CI -13.5 to -0.8). Additional adjustments for carotid intima-media thickness and heart rate did not change the associations with CHD mortality and SCD.

Conclusions: Low serum magnesium is associated with an increased risk of CHD mortality and SCD. Although low magnesium was associated with both carotid intima-media thickness and heart rate, this did not explain the relationship between serum magnesium and CHD mortality or SCD. Future studies should focus on why magnesium associates with CHD mortality and SCD and whether intervention reduces these risks.

Keywords: cardiovascular diseases; death, sudden; epidemiology; mortality; risk factors.

Reference #20

American Journal of Nephrology
Original Report: Patient-Oriented, Translational Research

Am J Nephrol 2012;36:228–237
https://doi.org/10.1159/000341868

Relationship between Serum Magnesium Levels and Cardiovascular Events in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients

Kanbay M.a, Yilmaz M.I.a, Apetrii M.e, Saglam M.b, Yaman H.c, Unal H.U.a, Gok M.a, Caglar K.a, Oguz Y.a, Yenicesu M.a, Cetinkaya H.a, Eyileten T.a, Acikel C.d, Vural A.a, Covic A.e

Abstract

Background: Magnesium is an essential ion for all living cells because over 300 enzymes require the presence of magnesium for their catalytic action. To date, no group has evaluated magnesium as a cardiovascular risk factor in chronic kidney disease (CKD) subjects, in which closely interrelated factors and potential confounders such as endothelial dysfunction, insulin resistance (the homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) index) and inflammation (expressed as serum C-reactive protein (CRP) levels) were also considered.

Methods: Between March 2006 and December 2010, 283 CKD patients were followed up for time-to-event analysis until the occurrence of fatal or nonfatal cardiovascular events. Endothelium-dependent vasodilatation (flow-mediated dilatation; FMD) and endothelium-independent vasodilatation (nitroglycerin-mediated dilatation) of the brachial artery were assessed noninvasively using high-resolution ultrasound.

Results: From the univariate analysis of FMD, it appears that a higher magnesium level is associated with less endothelial dysfunction. When a multivariate analysis was performed, magnesium and estimated glomerular filtration rates (eGFR) maintained a strong positive correlation with FMD, supporting the hypothesis that higher levels of magnesium may protect against endothelial damage. In univariate Cox proportional hazards models, FMD, magnesium, high sensitivity CRP, the HOMA index, eGFR, comorbid diabetes, hypertension, smoking status, systolic blood pressure, serum phosphate and intact parathormone emerged as significant predictors for cardiovascular outcomes. Kaplan-Meier curves showed significantly higher cardiovascular mortality rates in CKD patients whose serum magnesium levels were below 2.05 mg/dl.

Conclusions: This observational cohort study showed that magnesium may be an independent predictor of future cardiovascular outcomes and is the first study demonstrating such a role in etiologically diagnosed CKD patients, across different stages.

Keywords: Cardiovascular disease, Endothelial dysfunction, Risk factors, Chronic kidney disease, Magnesium

Reference #21

Editorial

Adv Chronic Kidney Dis. 2018 May;25(3):217-221.
doi: 10.1053/j.ackd.2018.04.001.

Magnesium: An Important Orphan

Jerry Yee

• PMID: 29793658
• DOI: 10.1053/j.ackd.2018.04.001

Abstract

No abstract available